Calvert Computer Systems, Inc.
239 E. Main St.  P. O. Box 95
Athena, OR  97813
(541)566-3338  tcalvert@oregonVOS.net
Sales, Service, Support and Training for
DOS, OS/2, Unix and Novell based systems. 

HOW 2 WIN...?

(Introductory Guide for MS-DOS / Windows 3.x / 9x / NT / 2000
Computer Systems)

Background
While this document contains instructions for numerous operating
systems from Microsoft, the general families of products breaks
out as follows:

MS-DOS / DR-DOS / IBM DOS will all generally work with the MS-DOS
instructions.

Windows 3.0, 3.1, 3.11 will all generally work with the MS-DOS
instructions (MS-DOS is "under" Windows 3.x) and with the Windows
3.x instructions.

Windows 95, 95a, 95b, 95c, 95OSR2, 98, 98 2nd Ed. will all generally
work with the Windows 9x instructions, although the DOS instructions
will work when you boot to the Command Prompt (MS-DOS 7.x is "under"
Windows 9x).

Windows NT / 2000 instructions will generally work with Windows
9x instructions.  MS-DOS instructions are not expected to work
with NT:  there is no "DOS" under NT / 2000.



Contents:  How do I ...
1. Start Windows
2. Make Windows Start Automatically
3. Keep Windows from Starting Automatically
4. Reset the Computer
5. Turn the Computer off (Normally)
6. Recover from a forced reset (Crash / Reboot)
7. Operate Windows
8. Find out what's on a Diskette
9. Log in / onto another diskette / drive
10. Get out of  a program that has crashed / failed
11. Get floppy disks ready for the computer
12. Proceed when I get a "not ready (or other) error"
13. Make a backup of a floppy disk
14. Turn on the Printer
15. Copy Specific programs from one drive to another
16. Understand file names in DOS and Windows
17. Know what programs create and use what files (extensions)
18. Access more than one file at a time when copying
19. Run programs automatically when DOS / Windows starts
20. Protect my diskettes so that they can't be accidentally erased
or reformatted
21. Run / Start / Execute programs
22. Add a new group / folder / directory
23. Add new programs
24. Understand subdirectories
25. Change my DOS prompt
26. Take advantage of task switching
27. Use the Internet
28. Send / Receive e-mail
29. Speed up my Computer

30. Analyze Modem Problems
31. Analyze Printer Problems
32. Analyze Mouse Problems
33. Analyze Keyboard Problems
34. Analyze Drive Problems
35. Analyze System Problems
36. Get more help
37. Understand the differences between versions of Windows
1. START  WINDOWS?
1. (Win 9x/NT/W2K) Turn on the computer: Open the drive door on
the floppy disk drive.  Turn on the machine.  It will automatically
start from the hard disk.
2.  (Win 3.x) If Windows does not start automatically:
		Type WIN and press the ENTER key

2. MAKE WINDOWS START AUTOMATICALLY?
(Win 3.x) You must edit the file AUTOEXEC.BAT found in the "root"
directory of the "C:" drive [see below for explanation of these
terms].  Here's how:
	0. from the DOS prompt, find out where Windows is located.
		In most cases, it will be in the WINDOWS directory.
		from the DOS prompt [C:\>] type
		DIR W*.
		You should see something like this
		WINDOWS		<DIR>		10-15-92	4:30 pm

	1. from the DOS prompt [C:\>] type
		EDIT   \AUTOEXEC.BAT and press the ENTER key
	2. look for the line beginning with  path=
		it should look something like this (either upper or lower case):
		path=c:\;c:\dos;c:\dosutil;
	3. Add the directory containing Windows to the path statement.
 On this line type
		;C:\WINDOWS; 
		
		Look at the last line of this file.  Many people have a menu that
runs 
		automatically and this usually begins by typing "menu" or "direct."
	4.  Find the last line of this file.
		- If this line is menu, type REM in front of the word menu
		- If this line is direct, type REM in front of the word direct
	5. On the next line (the new last line), type
		WIN
	6. Save the file by pressing
		ALT-F
		S
	7. Exit by pressing
		ALT-F
		X
When you restart your computer, Windows should start automatically.

(Win 9x)  Your MS-DOS file has been set so that BootGui=0.  See
the steps in the next section and change BootGui=1.

(Win NT/W2K) If your system doesn't start the GUI automatically,
you probably need to reinstall (or take the floppy out of the
drive when you boot the system :-)  ).

3. Keep Windows from starting Automatically?
(Win 3.x): 1) When you see "Starting MS-DOS, press the F8 key
for "step-by-step" confirmation of the boot process.  When you
see "WIN ?", answer "N".
2) For a permanent solution, edit the Autoexec.bat file and remove
the line containing "WIN" or add "REM" in front of it.

(Win9.x): 1) When you see "Starting Windows", press the F8 key

for a startup menu.  Select "Command prompt only" to go directly
to MS-DOS, or "Step-by-step confirmation" to selectively load
drivers, then answer "N" to "Start Graphic Interface".  2) To
always boot to DOS instead of Windows, you must edit the file
MSDOS.SYS:
	1. open a MS-DOS prompt
	2. change to the root directory			cd \
	3. change the attributes of this file		attrib -s -r -h msdos.sys
	4. edit this file					edit msdos.sys
	5. look for the line BootGui=1			change to BootGui=0
	     if this line doesn't exist, add 				BootGui=0
	6. do not remove any characters in this file:
	     the length must be at least 1024
	7. save the file and exit				Alt-F, S; Alt-F,X
	8. change the attributes of this file		attrib +s +r +h msdos.sys
	9. exit from the DOS prompt			exit
 Shutdown and reboot.

(WinNT): When NT starts, you'll see a menu on how to start the
system:  
Windows NT
Windows NT (VGA)
{previous operating system}

Select the previous system via the arrow keys, then press ENTER.
 Note:  you may not be able to access your data unless you boot
from NT if you are using the NTFS hard disk structure.
(Win2K):  You need a boot manager to avoid starting the Windows
graphic interface.

4. RESET THE COMPUTER?
Resetting the computer can occur under "normal" or "abnormal"
conditions:
Normal -- one must restart the computer in order to apply a configuration
change or to reinitialize drivers.  This is generally executed
at the "proper time and in the proper manner" by shutting down
the system and restarting it.
Abnormal -- the system has locked up or one must abort a process.

A reset ("boot") can be either "warm" or "cold":
Warm -- restarting the system bypasses the initial hardware testing;
reloading the operating system.
Cold -- includes the initial hardware reset and testing, clearing
system memory and reloading the operating system.

>>> See section 6 below if you reset the computer while a program
is running <<<

(DOS): Warm: Hold down the CTRL, ALT and DEL keys at the same
time.  Release them together for a reset.  A "normal" warm boot
is executed at the DOS prompt [C:\>].  An abnormal warm boot may
be executed at any time as needed.  If it fails, you must proceed
to the cold boot.
	Cold:  If your computer has a button labeled "RESET", you may
press this to reset the computer.  If not, turn off the computer
at the power switch or the power bar.  (Newer ATX style computers
use a software controlled power switch, so it may be necessary
to "pull the plug" on the system to get it to shut down.)

(Win3.x):  Warm:  CTRL-ALT-DEL should give a blue screen with
the message that if you press CTRL-ALT-DEL again the system will
restart.  Use this only when the system has locked up or a process
has stopped.
	Cold:  (This is not a good idea unless the system is "frozen",
"locked up").  Proceed as under DOS.


Note:  It sometimes appears as if the system has stopped or is
frozen when it is actually "thinking."  If the mouse is still
moving, the system may be thinking.  If the hard drive light is
flashing, the system may be thinking.  If the keyboard is not
responsive to CTRL-ALT-DEL, the hard drive light is continuously
on and the mouse doesn't move, the system is probably frozen.
 If so, you have not choice but to cold boot or wait.
(Win9.x):  CTRL-ALT-DEL opens the "Task Manager" which will allow
you to close processes that may not be responding to the system.
 You can click on the process name, then click on "End Task" to
close a process, or you can click on "Shutdown" to restart the
system.  Processes that have stopped will be indicated by "[not
responding]".  It is not a good idea to Cold Boot the system unless
it is actually frozen; then the proceed as under DOS.

(WinNT): CTRL-ALT-DEL opens a number of system controls, one of
which is the "Task Manager" and another is "Shutdown".    You
can end the process that has frozen, or can reboot the system.
 As under other versions of Windows, it is not a good idea to
Cold Boot NT unless absolutely necessary.

(Win2K): 


5. Turn off the Computer (Normally)
A. (DOS/Win3.x):  **Always**  wait for the DOS prompt.  This is
usually a "C:\>" but may also show additional path information.
 
(DOS):  exit from whatever program you are running and return
to the DOS prompt.
(Win3.x): close all running programs, exit from the Program Manager
via File, Exit or ALT-F4 and return to the DOS prompt.
If you have a utility to park the fixed disk heads, run it by
typing PARK (or whatever the command is), then remove power from
the system.

(Win9.x/NT/W2K): Click on Start, Shutdown, Shutdown the computer.
 Wait for the message "It is now safe to turn off your computer".
 Windows is "flushing the cache" -- writing information saved
in RAM to the fixed disk, updating configuration files, and so
on, so you must wait until all of these things are finished before
removing power from the system.  Win 98 2nd Edition has had a
long-standing bug:  it doesn't shut down properly and "hangs"
at the "Wait while Windows is shutting down" screen.  There is
a patch that can be / should be applied and a diagnostic sequence
at the Microsoft web site (www.microsoft.com) that may or may
not fix the problem.

Sometimes Win9.x /NT/W2K will "hang" at the "wait" screen and
will not give the message that it is safe to shutdown.  In such
a case, there is probably one program that is having problems.
 You may wait for a few minutes, press CTRL-ALT-DEL to see if
a process is not responding, then attempt to close it.  Often,
you'll see that RUNDLL or MSGSVR is hanging.  If you can't kill
these tasks, then wait a few more minutes, then remove power from
the system, wait 20 seconds, then restart the system and attempt
another shutdown.  If this persists, contact your vendor or see
Microsoft's web site for technical information.

Whenever you turn off the system, it is safest to wait at least
20 seconds before turning the machine on again.

5a. PROTECT MY INVESTMENT:  LEAVE MY SYSTEM ON ALL OF THE TIME
OR TURN IT OFF AT THE END OF THE DAY.
There are passionate arguments on both sides of this issue.  Our
recommendation is that unless you have a reason to leave your

system running overnight (e.g., it is a server, it answers the
phone, it receives faxes), it is best to turn it off at the end
of the work day.  Arguments for leaving the system on talk about
heat expansion and thermal shock; arguments against talk about
minimal impact of these situations on the hardware, environmental
concerns, and risk of data corruption.  Besides, Win9x/NT have
a less-than-sterling track record for reliability and up-time.
 Why not start fresh each day?

6. RECOVER FROM A FORCED RESET (OR SYSTEM CRASH)?
If you must reset your computer while Windows or another program
is running ("cold reset"), you need to know that programs and
Windows open numerous temporary files and has probably left them
"open" when you "crashed."  In order to run properly, your computer
cannot have any improperly opened files or files that are not
properly closed.  Furthermore, Windows can't fix this problem
and you generally can't fix this problem from within Windows.
 Furthermore, remember that except for Windows NT, all Windows
versions use DOS.

Here's how to fix this situation:
(DOS, Win3.x/9x)
	1. Start from a DOS prompt
		(DOS)  You're there.
		(Win3.x): if Win starts automatically, exit to DOS
		(Win9x): Select the command prompt only from the start menu:
		F8    when "Starting Windows"
		Command Prompt Only
	2. If you have a disk cache program running, you should disable
it.
		Usually, MS-DOS computers use a program called SMARTDRV
		which is disabled by:
		SMARTDRV  /C   C-
			This will write all data to the disk drive and turn off
			the cache for drive C:
	3. From the DOS prompt [C:\>], type
		SCANDISK			(or, if using MS-DOS 5.0 or earlier, you must 
						use CHKDSK C: /f /v)
		Scandisk will display a blue screen with items that it is checking.
 If it finds an 
		error, it will ask if you want to fix it.  Answer Yes.  It will
then ask if you want to 
		save undo information.  If so, you must tell it where to save
such info, or you 
		may answer "Skip Undo."  Each time it finds an error, it will
ask if you want
		to fix it.  When all files and directories have been checked,
Scandisk can 
		perform a surface scan to detect physical damage to the fixed
disk.  If you 
		have not run a surface scan, you should do it.  If you are having
numerous
		problems with your system, you should also do a surface scan.
 If your 
		system appears to be working properly -- other than the recent
unique crash -
		- you may not need to scan the surface of the drive.

		Note:  Windows 98 will automatically run scandisk if it detects
that the system
		was not properly shut down prior to this restart.

		Note:  Chkdsk will automatically fix many problems, but if it
finds lost 
		clusters, it will ask if you want to convert them to files:  Answer
Yes.


		(To have Win3.x/9x run scandisk automatically, add this line to
the
		autoexec.bat file:

		scandisk /all /autofix /nosummary
		)

	4. We now need to remove damaged files from the system.
		First, we'll remove any newly created, recovered files.
		From the DOS prompt, type
		DEL \*.CHK
		to remove all information from improperly closed temporary files.

		(You probably can't used this information anyway.  Backups are
for
		recovering data after system crashes.)

		Now we need to find where temporary files are usually located.
	5. From the DOS prompt, type
		SET
		and look for a line like this:
		TEMP=C:\DOS
		(If you don't find this line, you job is harder because you need
to find the
		temporary files created by Windows.  They look like "~WP000352.TMP."
		Incidentally, if you see the above line, you should create a TEMP
		directory [md \temp] and change your AUTOEXEC.BAT file to the
following:
		SET TEMP = C:\TEMP.)
		By default, DOS temp files are in 			C:\DOS
			Win 3.x temp files are in			C:\DOS or C:\Windows
			Win 9x temp files are in			C:\Windows\temp

	6. Change to the directory containing the temporary files:
		CD \DOS	or	CD \TEMP	or 	CD \Windows\temp

	7. Remove all (temporary) files found here.  In general, only
temporary files
		should be here.  
		DEL *.*			Answer Yes when asked...
		[NOTE:  You cannot remove temporary files while Windows is running.]

		Win 9x:  Regardless of the command in Autoexec.BAT, Windows will
still 
		place some temporary files into C:\Windows\temp, so you'll need
to clean
		 this directory as well.

		CD \Windows\Temp
		DEL *.*
		Yes

	8. DOS and Windows will fail if the drive is highly fragmented;
unfortunately, the
		definition of "highly" depends on the system and programs being
operated.
		The last step to recovering from a system crash is usually to
"Defrag" the
		drive.
		DOS (6.0 and later) and Win 3.x:  From the DOS prompt, type
			Defrag
		Note:  	DO NOT USE THE DOS 6.X DEFRAG PROGRAM ON  WIN 9X.
		(This will cause  / require a complete reinstall of Windows 9x.)
		Win 9x:  You must restart Windows.  From the Windows interface,


			Start, Run, "Defrag"		or
			Start, Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Disk Defragmenter

			Even if it says you don't need to run defrag, run it.

WinNT
	Microsoft did not include Scandisk  or Defrag with NT, so your
task is more "difficult."  
	As of 1998, Executive Software is distributing Diskeeper Lite
for NT, a free 
	version of their defrag program for NT.  You need to obtain this
program:
	(www.diskeeper.com).

	Windows NT will not run CHKDSK while running NT (whereas Win 9x
will run 
	scandisk and defrag from the graphic interface). 

	Open a Command Prompt and type		CHKDSK C: /F /V
		to check the C: drive.  Repeat
		this command for each drive to check.
	NT will tell you that it can't run CHKDSK now, but 
		can at the next reboot.  Answer		Y
	Select Start, Shutdown, Shutdown to exit from NT
	You may remove power from the system -- then restart Win NT. 
 It will run
	CHKDSK as you asked earlier while the blue screen is showing.

	From the Windows Graphic Interface ("Desktop"), open a command
prompt again.
	type SET to find the temp directory	(often C:\TEMP)
	Change to that directory as if you're running DOS, and remove
all files found there
		via DEL *.*
	Change to the root directory (CD \) and remove all recovered files:
		DEL *.CHK
	Exit from the command prompt via 
		exit

	Run Diskeeper Lite to defrag the drives via
		Start, Programs, Executive Software, Diskeeper Lite

W2K
	Like WinNT, W2K does not include scandisk, but does include chkdsk.
 Chkdsk will 
	run in read-only mode under W2K, but must be run as under WinNT
for a complete 
	check and repair of the system.  Defrag has been included in W2K
-- a version of 
	Diskeeper, and may be run from within Windows.

7. OPERATE WINDOWS
Windows is usually operated by using the mouse.  Mouse operations
in all versions of Windows are:

"Click"			point at an object and depress / release the left mouse
button.
			This action will "Select" the object.
"Click and Drag"	point at an object, depress and hold the left
mouse button -- 
			move the mouse to a new location, then release the mouse
			button "dropping" the object onto a new location or another object.
			This is used to "Move" an icon or "Resize" a window.
"Double Click"	point at an object and depress / release the left
mouse button twice 
			within approximately 1/4 second.  This is used to 	"Execute" or


			"Launch" an application.

Note:  a "double click" while moving the mouse is generally interpreted
as a "click and drag" by the system.

Win9x/NT/W2K add the use of the right mouse button:
"Right Click"		point at an object and depress / release the right
mouse button
			to open a menu for modifying properties, creating new objects,
			and so on.  Within the menu, use the left mouse button to 
			select / execute via "click."
			"Adjust properties"

In general, point at the center of the icon before any click /
double click.  A slow double-click when pointing at the name of
the icon under Win9x/NT/W2K may be interpreted as "rename the
object" instead of "execute."

If you have problems executing a "double click", you can also
launch a program by pressing the ENTER key after selecting an
icon.

Windows also uses the keyboard for some operations:  Arrow keys
move between icons within a group or folder.  CTRL-TAB moves between
groups.  ENTER will launch a program.  ALT is used to turn on
the menus and the first key (usually) of a menu will open the
pull-down box.

8. FIND OUT WHAT'S ON A DISKETTE
(DOS):   use the DIR command to look at a drive (and this will
also work from within the DOS prompt or Command Prompt under all
versions of Windows).  The first floppy disk is A:, the first
fixed disk is usually C:, the CD-ROM is usually D:.
	DIR A:				shows the directory on A:
	DIR C: /W			shows the directory on C: in wide format
	DIR C: /S /P			shows all non-hidden files on C:, pausing after
					each screen
	DIR C: /ah			shows hidden files on C:
	DIR C: /on			shows files in alphabetical order
After DOS 5.0, you can find out the syntax of the DIR command
by typing DIR /?.

(Win3.x):  Use the File Manager in the Main Group to examine the
drive and see its contents.
(Win9x/NT/W2K):  Use the Windows Explorer (Start, Programs, Windows
Explorer) to examine the drive and see its contents.  You may
also open My Computer then open each drive.
You can use the scroll bars to move through lists of files and
directories.  If you want detailed information, open the VIEW
menu and select ALL INFORMATION (3.x) or Options (9x/NT/W2K) Folder
properties  - show all files.

9. LOG ONTO ANOTHER DISKETTE/DRIVE
(Explanation of the question:  The prompt given by DOS contains
the "default" disk drive, the one you're working on.  When you
need to work with files or data on another diskette, you "log
onto" the other diskette.)
(DOS or a Command prompt): Enter the drive name, such as "C:"
or "D:" then press ENTER.  

Windows doesn't use this concept directly.  Icons are linked to
program names and full paths so when you double-click on an icon,
the program will launch properly and the drive you need will be
available.  Within a program, however, you may need to change
drives or directories.


10. GET OUT OF A PROGRAM THAT HAS CRASHED
(A crashed / locked-up / frozen program is one that doesn't do
anything and it is keeping the system from responding.  If you
keep pressing keys the system will begin beeping with every keystroke.)
 Solving this problem is generally very simple:	

1.  Look at the screen.  Are there any instructions for "backing-up"
or reversing what you just tried?   Sometimes instructions on
the screen are overlooked.
	(DOS):  Function keys are good for this:  ESC, F10, CTRL-BREAK
	(Win): Try the mouse with the menu (if the keyboard is locked
up) or the 
	keyboard (if the mouse is frozen): ALT-F4 to close a window/program.
 You can also 
	double-click on the control box (top left box of the open window,
left of the title bar) 
	or click the Close box ("X" in upper right corner under Win 9x/NT).

	If the keyboard doesn't work and the mouse will continue moving
but "dings" when 
	you select anything, you're locked up.
2. Sometimes a program will just take a while to get going.  Make
sure that the hard 
	drive light is not blinking.   Give it enough time to sort things
out (usually 5 minutes is 
	more than enough in computer time:  that's  roughly 500,000,000
computer 
	decisions....)
3. You'll need to reset the computer (see above).  Try resetting
the machine by a 
	WARM BOOT (CTRL-ALT-DEL).  If this doesn't work, your computer
really is 
	"locked-up."  ...
4. If your machine has a reset button, press it.  If this doesn't
work the reset button 
	may not be connected or you may have a serious hardware problem
with your 
	system. (These conditions are very unusual)...
5. Open the disk drive doors, turn off the computer, wait for
20 seconds, and then 
	restart the system.  If the power button on the front of the machine
doesn't work, use 
	the one on the back of the system. If there is none or it doesn't
work, pull the 
	plug.  Follow the instructions above for recovering from a reset.
 

	Note [ again]:  With newer systems, the power switch on the front
of the case is not 
	the "real"  power  switch -- which is on the back of the system.
 If the front power 
	switch doesn't  kill the power, use the one in back, or unplug
the system from the 
	wall.


11. GET FLOPPY DISKS READY FOR THE COMPUTER
(DOS or Command Prompt):  type FORMAT A: /U   to format a floppy
using the default parameters.  Type FORMAT /? for a list of options
for this command.
(Win3.x):  Go to the File Manager and select the DISK menu and
select FORMAT DATA DISK.

(Win9x/NT/W2K): From the Windows Explorer or My Computer, right
click on the drive and from the resulting menu, select FORMAT.

You can specify the format of the diskette via the pull-down pick
box.  In most cases, you'll want to select "Full" format rather
than "Quick".  You'll generally use the default capacities of
the drives.

Maximum capacity of the drive and the permissible formats:
	3.5" drive		1.44Mb (High density)
				720K (Low density)
				120Mb (Superdisk)
				100Mb (Iomega Zip Drive)

	5.25"			1.2Mb (High density)
				360K (Low density)

If you need special formats, you may use [this is a plug:] Data
Depot's HiCopy program.

12. PROCEED WHEN I GET A "NOT READY (OR OTHER) ERROR"
In most cases, this error message means you asked the computer
to do something that it cannot do, such as read an unformatted
diskette, write to the printer when it is not turned on, or write
to a floppy disk when the drive door is open.  If you changed
the situation or condition, you could select "Retry."  

Sometimes, however, "Retry" and "Cancel" will result in a "General
Protection Fault" (or "UAE" situation, or "Blue Screen of Death"
under NT).  The safest way to recover from this type of error
is to exit from Windows, then restart Windows and try again.

Obviously, if you can identify the situation that caused the problem
and can correct it, you can press "retry."


13. MAKE A BACKUP OF A FLOPPY DISK
(DOS or Command Prompt):  type DISKCOPY or Diskcopy A: B: if you
have two drives of the same size and capacity.

(Win3.x): Go to the File Manager and select the DISK menu, then
select COPY.  You'll be asked for the source and destination drive
(they must be the same size).
(Win9x/NT/W2K): Use Windows Explorer or My Computer, right click
on the drive.  Select Copy Disk from the resulting menu.

14. TURN ON THE PRINTER (Print Screen) 
(DOS only) press Print Screen to print a copy of the screen to
the printer.
(Win3.x): You can't press "Print Screen" to make a copy of the
screen or text without a "screen capture" program (commercial
/ shareware or freeware -- see below).
(Win9x/NT/W2K): Print Screen copies the content of the screen
to the clipboard.  You must then open a program and paste the
contents of the clipboard into the file, then you can print the
file from that program.

15. COPY SPECIFIC PROGRAMS FROM ONE DRIVE TO ANOTHER
(DOS or Command Prompt):  If you know the source and destination
and the file name, you can use the COPY command:
	copy {source} {destination}

(Win3.x): Use the File Manager.  Open the drive you're copying
FROM and select the file from the file window.  Select FILE menu
then COPY.  You must know the destination drive (as a minimum)
and possibly the path on the drive.
(Win9x/NT/W2K): Use Windows Explorer or My Computer.  Open the
drive and folder where the file is located, right click on the
file and from the resulting menu, select "copy."  Use the left

button to select another drive (if necessary) then right click
on the destination folder and, from the menu, select "paste."
 You can click-drag items between drives, but shortcuts are created
if you click-drag within a drive.  You cannot copy and rename
a file within the same directory:  you must copy the file to a
temporary area, rename it, then copy the renamed file to the original
directory.

Moving files (copy then erase the original) is done via:
(DOS or Command Prompt): MOVE instead of COPY
	move{source} {destination}
(Win3.x): Click and drag the file from the source to destination,
or click  on the file, then from the menu FILE, Move and enter
the destination directory.
(Win9x/NT/W2K): Click and drag will NOT move a file from one folder
(directory) to another within the same drive -- it will create
a "shortcut" to the file.   Moving a file involves Windows Explorer
or My Computer: right click on the file and select Cut; point
to the destination drive / folder, right click and select Paste.

16. UNDERSTAND FILE NAMES IN DOS AND WINDOWS
Because Windows is based on or uses DOS, you should know the rules
associated with naming and using DOS files.  (Even though Win9x/NT/W2K
has "broken" the '8.3' name limitation.)  Each file has a name
that is broken down into various parts that are necessary for
finding it.  There can be only one file in a disk path per unique
name.  i.e., you can only have one "labeler.exe" on the diskette
in a specific area at any one time.  The full name of each file
has these parts:
disk drive	path	name		.extension  such as:
or resource
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
			LABELER	.EXE       (labeler is found in the "default" drive 
							and "default" path).
A:\			LABELER	.EXE       (labeler found in the a: drive in the
							"root" directory.)
C:\		UTIL\	LABELER	.EXE       (Labeler found in drive c: in the "util"
subdir.)
\\SERVER	\UTIL\	SHOWFIL	.EXE	   (Showfil found in "util" on system
SERVER
						    using universal naming rules)

We can skip most of the name by using the "default".  If we're
using / point to / logged onto the A: drive in the root directory,
all that we need to manipulate the file is its name and extension.

Disk drives are referred to by drive letters (A-Z) followed by
a colon (:) when on a local machine.  If connected to a network,
a (remote) server name is preceded by two backslashes (\).

"Path" refers to the structure of directories and subdirectories
(folders and sub-folders) found on the drive.  Directories / folders
are special files that contain information and point to other
files.  The length of a path may be as small as a single backslash
(\), or as long as 128 characters, depending upon the specific
limitations of the operating system we're using (DOS, Win3.x /
9x / NT / W2K).  Path names follow the same limitations as file
names when it comes to the structure of the name.  Directory names
are separated by backslashes; e.g., \util\win95\floppy\showfil.exe
 See below, "Understand subdirectories"

File Name is what the file is called.  If the file is a command,
one types only the name to run the command.  File names are limited
in DOS to 8 characters which may not include the following:

	?			question mark, indicating a single character as a wild card

	*			star, indicating ALL characters for name or extension
	\			backslash, indicating a path
	/			slash, indicating a switch
	+			concatenation character, meaning "add"
	:			colon, indicating a drive
	.			period, indicating an extension
				control characters (unprintable) or spaces

(Win9x/NT/W2K allows the use of spaces and periods, as well as
file names over 8 characters in length; e.g., 
\My Documents\Letters to Prison\Prisoner 3524.1999.03.15.doc
is a valid file name that would (probably) appear under DOS as:
         \mydocu~1\letter~2\prison~5.doc)

Extension indicates the type of file.  Some programs automatically
assign extensions to file and these indicate to Windows what programs
are associated with the file.  See next section for details.

17. KNOW WHAT PROGRAMS CREATE AND USE WHAT FILES
Look at the file extension.  Generally, you can identify the program
required by the extension on the data files.  Here are some examples
of standardized file extensions:
Program		EXT
Compressed files	.ZIP, .?Q?, .ARC, .ARJ, .??_
Pascal		.000, .PAS,.INT
dBASE III-V		.DBF, .DBO,.PRG,.FRM,.FRO,.CAT,.LBL,.MEM,.FMT,.FRG,
.NDX
FoxBase		.FOX, .IDX (plus dBASE)
Clipper		.NTX (plus dBASE)
Assembler		.ASM
BASIC			.BAS, .INT
FORTRAN		.FOR, .INT
DOS Batch		.BAT
OS/2 Batch		.CMD
dBASE II		.CMD
Binary code		.BIN, .OBJ
Overlay		.OVL, .OVR
c			.C,.LIB,.OBJ,.
c++			.CPP (and c)
Windows Graphics	.BMP
Fax			.TIF
Lost files		.CHK  (from chkdsk.exe)
COBOL		.COB
Executables		.COM, .EXE
Data Files		.DAT  (from numerous programs)
Framework		.FW
Help files		.HLP
Windows Param.	.INI

Spreadsheets	.WKS, .WK1, .WK2, .WK3, .LCD, .XLS
  e.g., Excel
Word			.DOC
Works			.WPS, .WPD, .WDB
READ-ME		.ME, .1st
DOS driver		.SYS
Ascii Text		.TXT
  e.g, Notepad
WordPerfect		.WRS, .PRS, .DRS, .WPG, .WPD
Windows Libraries	.DLL

Some special files you may see, especially on shareware or public
domain diskettes:
	HELP.DOC -- documentation containing help
	READ.ME (README.1ST, README.WRI) -- additional instructions for
the program


Win9x/NT/W2K keeps track of the extensions and associated programs
in an area of the registry.  Change the extension on a file and
Windows will complain.

18. ACCESS MORE THAN ONE FILE AT A TIME WHEN COPYING
(DOS or Command Prompt):  use of "Wild Cards" in a command allows
access to more than one file.  For example, to copy a file, substitute
a "?" for a single unknown character:

For example, "LAB??.exe".  This "name" refers to ALL of these
files:
LAB01.EXE 	LABEL.EXE 	LAB.EXE	LABZ.EXE	LABZZ.EXE 

or substitute "*" for all remaining characters with the name or
extension:
"LAB*.*" refers to all of the above files, as well as
LABELER.EXE	LABEL.OBJ		LABQRS.TXT

"*.*"  is the same as using "????????.???" to indicate all names
and extensions.

To copy all programs beginning with "G" that are "BAS" types (extension)
of programs from A: to B:, you'd enter 
	copy A: G*.BAS B:

(Windows):  If the option presented is to enter a file name, you
may use wild cards as needed.  If you are working with the File
Manager, Windows Explorer or My Computer, you may select multiple
files by using the Shift or Control key with the mouse or keyboard.
To select a contiguous group of files:
	click on the first file in the sequence
	(if you need to scroll down, do so here)
	depress and hold the shift key
	click on the last file in the sequence
		All files will be hilighted and you can treat those files as a
single unit.
		e.g., Right click, copy; point to destination, right click, paste

To select a number of dissimilarly named files:
	click on the first file
	(scroll up / down here)
	depress and hold the control key
	click on the next file in the sequence
		Both files are hilighted.
		release the control key, scroll to the next file,
		depress and hold the control key
		click on the next file in the sequence
		In addition, the next file is hilighted
		continue until all files you want are selected
		You can then treat them as a single unit

(Win3.x): You can copy dissimilar files via File Manager by entering
the names under Select Files -- separating each name with a space.

19. RUN PROGRAMS AUTOMATICALLY WHEN DOS / WINDOWS STARTS
(DOS) There are two places for programs to run when the system
starts:  Autoexec.bat and Config.sys.  Config.sys will run special
programs ("drivers") if a reference to the driver is contained
within the config.sys file.  Autoexec.bat will run executable
programs if a reference to that program is contained within the
autoexec.bat file.
e.g., to run an anti-virus program named "scan" each time the
system starts, you would include the line

scan


in the autoexec.bat file.

(Windows) There are numerous places where a program could start
from:
config.sys -- same rules as DOS    		(\winnt\config.nt for NT/W2K)
autoexec.bat -- same rules as DOS	(\winnt\autoexec.nt for NT/W2K)
system.ini
win.ini:	load =
		run=
the Startup group / folder
the Registry 					(Win9x/NT/W2K)

Users usually don't make changes to the *.ini files or registry
directly.  Usually, you'll copy the icon for the program to the
STARTUP group (or folder) or create a shortcut to the program
and move it to the STARTUP folder.  Any icon / shortcut to a program
found in Startup when Windows begins will result in that program
being automatically executed.

20. PROTECT MY DISKETTES SO THAT THEY CAN'T BE ACCIDENTALLY REFORMATTED
OR ERASED
For 5 1/4" diskettes, place a write-protect tab on the diskette,
covering the write notch. For 3.5" diskettes, move the plastic
cover opening the write protect hole.  You can also protect specific
files on a diskette against accidental erasure or damage by adding
the "read-only" attribute via ATTRIB +r {filename} from DOS, changing
the attributes from the File Manager, or the file properties from
the Windows Explorer.

21. RUN / START / EXECUTE PROGRAMS
All information stored on a disk is stored in files.  Some of
these files are actually executable programs.  Programs recognized
by DOS all have extensions of ".com", ".exe", or ".bat" extension,
and all you need to do is type the name of the program to execute
it. Of course, DOS must know that the program is available to
be run (see "path" variable).
(Win3.x): Run programs from the FILE menu, option RUN.  Enter
the name of the program to run and press ENTER.  You can also
start programs by double clicking on the icon in the program group
or from the icon under the File Manager.
(Win9x/NT/W2K): select Start, RUN then type the name of the program
and press ENTER.  You can also start programs by double clicking
on the icon /shortcut to the program from the start menu (Start
  Programs  {folder} ), the desktop, the Windows Explorer or My
Computer.

22. ADD  A NEW GROUP  / FOLDER  / DIRECTORY
(Yes, these words are sometimes used to mean the same thing...)
(DOS or Command Prompt):  create a new directory using the MD
command:
	MD {name of directory}

(Win3.x):
	Program Groups:  In the Program Manager menu, select FILE  then
NEW.  Select Program Group (instead of Item) and  tell Windows
what you want to call the group (Description) and the file name
to use.  File names are limited to 8 characters -- Windows will
add the .GRP extension.
	Directories:  From the File Manager, point to the directory into
which you want to create another directory.  Select FILE then
Create Directory; enter a name and press ENTER or click OK.
(Win9x/NT/W2K):
	Menu Folders:  Select START, Settings,  Taskbar & Start Menu,
Start Menu Programs (tab), Advanced.  This will display an Explorer-like
Window.  Click on the "+" to the left of Programs to see the menu
structure.  Right click on the folder under which you want to

create a new folder, and select NEW then FOLDER.  Enter the name
and press ENTER.
	Directories / Folders:  Use the Windows Explorer or My Computer
to view the drive.  Right click on the folder under which you
want to create a new folder, select NEW then FOLDER.  Enter the
name and press ENTER.

23. ADD NEW PROGRAMS
(DOS or Command Prompt): DOS programs are usually copied to a
fixed disk or are installed using a program (written by the manufacturer)
called "INSTALL" or "SETUP."  Look for this program on the distribution
media (floppy or CD) and execute it.  In some cases, you'll be
asked to manually create a new directory and copy the files from
the distribution media into the target directory.  To make the
program "public" or available from anywhere in the system, add
the path to the line in the autoexec.bat file that begins with


PATH=
such as
PATH=C:\WINDOWS;C:\WINDOWS\COMMAND;C:\BITWARE;

(Windows): If the program is distributed by Floppy Diskettes and
your new program is written for Windows, place the floppy diskette
into the proper drive and select 
(Win3.x) FILE, RUN
(Win9x/NT/W2K) START, RUN
and enter A:\SETUP or B:\SETUP (depending upon the drive containing
the floppy diskette).  You can also use the 
(Win3.x) File Manager or 
(Win9x/NT/W2K) Windows Explorer or
(Win9x/NT/W2K) My Computer
to view the contents of the diskette, then double click on the
setup program.  
Some companies prefer to use a program named "INSTALL", so you
would enter "A:\INSTALL" or "B:\INSTALL".  Look at the diskette
label or enclosed instructions -- it will probably tell you what
to enter.  If it doesn't, use the File Manager or Windows Explorer
to look at the diskette to find the installation program.  In
general, programs added to Windows via a SETUP will create their
own folders / directories, add their own groups / folders and
icons / shortcuts.
2. If the program you want to add or access has been written for
Windows and does not have an installation sequence or is just
to be copied to your fixed disk, you'll need to:
	a. copy the program to the fixed disk using File Manager or Windows
Explorer
		(You might create a new folder / subdirectory first for the program...)
	b. select the group you want to add the program to.  If you need
to create a new 
		group / menu folder, see the previous question.
(Win3.x):
	c. from the FILE menu, select NEW then Item.
	d. If you know the description of this program, enter it.  If
not, Windows will use the
		file name as the description.
	e. If you know the complete path of the program, enter it.  If
not, use BROWSE to
		find the program.
	f. Specify the icon to use by selecting CHANGE ICON.  If the program
has a built-in 
		Icon, it will be displayed.  If not, you'll get to select an icon
from 
		PROGMAN.EXE.  You may change the icon file to MORICONS.DLL.
	g. Specify the working directory to use.  If you leave this blank,
Windows will use

		whatever directory is the default when you start Windows.
	h. Press OK to finish.  If you are adding a program on a network,
you may get a 
		warning that can be ignored.
(Win9x/NT/W2K):
	c. Open the new program folder, right click when pointing to "white
space" and
		select "New" from the menu, then "Shortcut."
	d. Enter the full name of the program including drive and path;
or click on browse
		and point to it.
	e. Enter the label for the shortcut and press ENTER
	f. If the program does not have default icons, select an icon
from the list shown
		and click on Finish.

3. If the program you're wanting to add is a DOS program,  and
you want to run it from Windows:
(Win3.x):  you'll need to add or edit a PIF file.
	a. Open the PIF editor (Main Group)
	b. Enter the description of the program, executable file name,
memory 
		requirements, hardware requirements, etc.
	c. Save the data to a file having the same name as your program;
e.g., LOTUS.PIF
		for LOTUS.COM, WP.PIF for WordPerfect WP.EXE.
	d. Follow the steps above for adding an icon to Windows.  The
icon for your program
		may be in MORICONS.DLL rather than PROGMAN.EXE.  For the name
		of the program, enter the PIF file name.
(Win9x/NT/W2K):  Create a shortcut for the program as above. 
Win9x/NT/W2K handles default items for DOS programs.  Should you
need to modify the properties of the shortcut / program, right
click on the program / shortcut and select Properties from the
menu.

24. UNDERSTAND  SUBDIRECTORIES
Think of your computer disk as a filing cabinet having a drawer
for each drive you have.  Each drawer may contain a finite number
of files / folders, then it will get full.  You may still have
room in the drawer, but the number of "root files" is locked in.

Under normal circumstances, you may have a maximum number of files
(in the "root" directory):
DOS Ver		Floppy Disks	Hard Disks
2.x			112			112
3.x			360K : 112		512
3.x			720K : 112		512
(PC-DOS:		720K:  224)		512
3.x			1.2Mb: 112		512
3.x			1.4Mb: 224		512
4-7			(same as DOS 3.x)			(Dos 7 = Windows 9x)

Because many programs require multiple floppy diskettes (e.g.,
Windows 3.1: 6 - 1.44 Mb diskettes; Windows 95: 13 1.7Mb diskettes),
it is possible to need more file "handles" than what is available
in the root directory.  To meet this situation, DOS/Windows uses
the concept of "directories" (borrowed from Unix) to expand the
number of files that can reside on a disk.

Again, think of your hard disk as if it were a drawer in a filing
cabinet.  A subdirectory would be comparable to using one of the
files as a "special" file that was expandable to the capacity
of the drawer.  Instead of being limited to a specific "number"
of files, you can now use the entire space in the drawer and your
limitation is the amount of cubic feet available (Bytes).


By keeping programs and files together, you can manage your data
better and can avoid copying a file with the same name onto (and
thus destroying) another file with the same name.  The word "Directory"
is used throughout this discussion even though Win9x/NT/W2K uses
the term "folder" at times to refer to directories.

Every disk has a "root" directory, and you'll usually start here.
 The root directory is abbreviated as "\".  ALL SUBDIRECTORIES
INITIALLY ARE "SUB" FROM THE ROOT DIRECTORY.

Subdirectory Commands (DOS or Command Prompt):
	Create sub-dir:  mkdir {name} or md {name} 
	Delete sub-dir:  rmdir {name} or rd {name}
	Change direct.:  chdir {name} or cd {name}
(Windows commands involve creating a folder -- rt click, new,
folder; deleting a folder -- rt click, delete; changing to a folder
-- double click on a folder.)

EXAMPLE:  Suppose you have the following things to keep on your
hard disk: Accounting, spreadsheet, word processing, communications,
and games.  Each of these areas has about 50 to 100 files.  You'd
probably have your hard disk set up like this:
				|--ACCOUNTING (\ACCT) 
				|--GAMES (\GAMES)
ROOT DIRECTORY ------|
 (\				|--SPREADSHEET (\SPREAD)
				|--WORD PROCESSING (\WP)
				|--COMMUNICATIONS (\COMM)

Suppose as well that you have 3 kinds of communication programs,
and are doing accounting for 3 companies.  You'd probably want
to divide your hard disk further like this:


				|--ACCOUNTING (\ACCT) 
				|     |--JONES ACCT (\ACCT\JONES)
				|     |--SMITH ACCT (\ACCT\SMITH)
				|     |--OUR ACCT   (\ACCT\US)
				|--GAMES (\GAMES)
ROOT DIRECTORY ------|
 (\)				|--SPREADSHEET (\SPREAD)
				|--WORD PROCESSING (\WP)
				|--COMMUNICATIONS (\COMM)
					|--MITE  (\COMM\MITE)
					|--PCTALK (\COMM\TALK3)
					|--COMM DATA  (\COMM\DATA)

The number of levels of subdirectories you can have depends upon
the length of the names.  DOS (and Win3.x) limits path names to
64 characters, so you could have:
\spread\lotus\123unix\wkshts\template\working\finally.wk3
or you could have
\sp\lo\123u\wks\tmpl\B&J\Mike's\1997\oct\wrk\finally.wk3
or under Win9x/NT/W2K (and 128 character limit, extended filenames)
\Spreadsheet\Lotus123 Unix\Work\Brown & Jones Co\Mike's\1997\October\Working\

In general, management of directories is easier with the File
Manager, Windows Explorer or My Computer than from DOS or the
Command Prompt.

25. CHANGE MY DOS PROMPT
The system prompt may be changed to display the path and drive
by typing:
	PROMPT $p$g
and the prompt will change from

	A>  	to	A:\>  	or    C>  	to	C:\UTIL\BOCA>

You can also add some "frills" to the prompt if you add the line
	DEVICE = C:\DOS\ANSI.SYS     (DOS / 3x)  or
	DEVICEHIGH=C:\WINDOWS\COMMAND\ANSI.SYS  (9x)
to your CONFIG.SYS file, then change your prompt  (in AUTOEXEC.BAT)
to:
	prompt $d$_$t$_$p$g


This will change your prompt to:
	{date}
	{time}
	C:\>
You can explore other prompt changes by examining the help information
for ANSI.SYS.

26. TAKE ADVANTAGE OF TASK SWITCHING
Task Switching is the ability to switch between programs without
the need to close any programs.  This is a feature of Windows'
multitasking: the ability to run multiple tasks simultaneously.
(DOS):  If you are using DOS without Windows, you can only switch
tasks via add-in programs.  DOS is a single user, single tasking
system that uses 640K RAM.
(Win3.x): Windows 3.x allows for task switching, but programs
may be ill-behaved.  Often multiple DOS sessions will run, but
only the one in foreground (the top window) will be running --
all others are in suspended mode.  Clicking on the various windows
will allow you to switch between sessions or tasks, or the control
box allows you to switch between tasks.  You can also access the
Tasks Window by CTRL-ESC.  Select the task you want to run, then
SWITCH TO.  Remember that all programs are launched by the Program
Manager, so if you are running Word Perfect and you want to open
the Clock, you first need to switch to the Program Manager then
open the Clock.  "Crashing" is a common consequence of Windows
3.x task switching.
(Win9x/NT/W2K):  Windows 9x has a more stable and sophistocated
form of multitasking that allows users to open multiple DOS sessions
and multiple Windows programs and run all simultaneously.  However,
one misbehaved program will often cause the entire system to crash.
 Windows NT and W2K are multitasking systems that create virtual
DOS systems within Windows so that each program runs in a separate
"space" and, if needed, can crash by itself and not affect other
programs.  A "master control program" allocates all system resources.
 An ill-behaved program should not affect other programs in the
system.  (In this respect, W2K is more advanced than NT, which
is more advanced than 98, which is more advanced than 95 which
is more advanced than 3.x.)  You can switch tasks by clicking
on the task you want to run on the taskbar.

27. USE THE INTERNET
To use the internet, you first must have the hardware installed:
computer
modem, with the proper drivers
telephone connection

and software installed:
internet dial-up software with PPP support
browser
e-mail program
ftp (optional)

In addition, you'll need an account with an Internet Service Provider
(ISP) who should provide you with this information:
	Your login name				e.g., 	johnsmit
	Your login password				3jd90gq

	Your Internet Service Provider's domain		internet.net
	Your e-mail address				johnsmit@internet.net
	Your ISP's dial-up phone number			555-1212
	Optionally: ISP's DNS Address(es)		158.16.193.3  (example only)
								158.16.193.5

Configuration of your System:
(DOS only): We don't recommend you take this route.  [Plug: ]Caldera
makes a web browser for DOS systems and DR-DOS 7, but the necessary
software to make the connection to the internet is scarce. (Remember,
you can run nearly all DOS programs from within Windows.)
(Win3.x): You'll need a TCP/IP stack, such as Trumpet Winsock
to be installed.  Customize your Winsock stack with the information
above. Oregon Video and Online Services (www.oregonvos.net/compass)
has Windows 3.1 internet software available for download but you'll
need to change the IP addresses contained within it if you're
not using Compass as your ISP.  NOTE:  Your main reason to use
this option should be that your hardware can't run *anything*
but Win 3.x.

(Win95):  Dial-up Networking and Microsoft Client for Windows
are not installed by default, so you must install them.  In addition,
you'll want to install the upgrade to Dial Up Networking ver 1.3
(download from www.microsoft.com).  (Yes, you want to do this.)

To install Dial-up Networking, Select Start, Settings, Control
Panel, Add/Remove, Windows Components, Communications, Dial-Up
Networking.  You'll need your Win 95 CD or Diskettes, and you'll
need to reboot (many times).  
In order to save your login password, you'll need to install the
Client for Microsoft Networks:  Control Panel, Network, Add, Client,
Microsoft, Client for Microsoft Networks.  After these are installed
and you reboot, close the control Panel, and select My Computer,
Dialup Networking.  
Windows should begin the DialUp Networking Wizard to help you.
 
Enter your Provider's name and phone number.  
Enter your area code and click on Next / OK to create the connection.
After your connection is created, right click on it and open Properties.
1) Make sure that the phone number is correct
2) uncheck "Dial with area code and number" / "Use Area code"
 for local calls.
3) Click on the Tab Server Types
	a) Server Type: PPP
	b) Check:  Log on to network
	c) Check: Enable software compression
	d) uncheck: Require encrypted password
	e) uncheck Require data encryption
	f) uncheck Record a log for this connection

	g) uncheck NetBEUI
	h) uncheck IPX/SPX
	i) Check TCP/IP
	j) Click on TCP/IP Settings
		1) check Server assigned IP address
		2) If your ISP gave you DNS addresses, click on
			Specify name server addresses
			and enter the addresses, otherwise click on
			Server Assigned name server addresses
		3) If your ISP does not use IP header compressession, uncheck
this
			option.
		4) Check Use default gateway on remote network
	k) Click on OK
4) If your ISP tells you that you need to use a script for logging
in, click on the

		Scripting tab and enter the name of the script to use, otherwise,
		you are finished
5) Click on OK

Finally, right click on the connection and create a shortcut on
the desktop.

(Win 98):  Dial Up networking is installed by default under Windows
98, so all you need to do is double click on My Computer, Dialup
Networking and enter the above information. When finished, create
a shortcut for the desktop.

(Win NT/W2K):  You must have your modem installed and RAS installed
prior to Dialup Networking.  For RAS, identify the modem and port
you're going to use and make sure that you are only support "Dial
Out" and "TCP/IP" protocol.  After the reboot, double click on
My Computer, Dialup Networking and create a new entry in your
phone book with the above information.  NT allows a more persistent
connection to the internet, so you have a phone book of multiple
connections to manage as well as a slightly different procedure
for logging in and out:  disconnecting from the internet involves
not only "hanging up" but also closing the Dialup Networking program.

(Win2K) A slightly different interface, but the same general concept
as NT.

How to connect and use the internet:
	First, connect to the internet:
		Double click on your icon for connecting to the internet
			Windows 3.x:  Trumpet Winsock, Click on the menu for
				commands, then login.  After a successful login, resize or
				minimize Winsock so that it doesn't interfere with the actual
				internet usage
			Windows 9x/NT/W2K:  Dial Up Networking Shortcut, Enter your
				login name and password (it won't show), click on
				"Save Password" then Connect.  	You should login 
				automatically.  You may see an informational screen.  Click
				on Ok and the connection will minimize itself to the system
				tray (Lower Right corner of the screen).
				If there is a problems, you'll receive a message and error 
				(650, 671, 680, 690).  If the message indicates that the
				other computer (ISP) is not answering the phone or the
				line is busy -- it is not your system's fault.  Normally any 					other
problems at this point are login name or password.
				Sometimes, you need to change the settings:  IP Header
				compression, logon to network, enable compression.  In
				some cases, the problem is that your system needs the
				DUN upgrade from Microsoft, or your modem's driver is
				incorrect.
	Next, Do something
		e-mail:  open your e-mail program and check your mail, or send
mail
		Browser:  open your browser and begin looking...
		ftp:  open your ftp program and connect to a download site
	Next, close your "something programs" in preparation to exit.
	Finally, hang up
		Windows 3.x:  Click on the menu for commands, then click Bye
		Windows 9x/NT/W2K: Right click on the connection icon found in
the 
			system tray (two computers), select "Disconnect" from the
			menu.  NT will display the connection from which to disconnect
for
			you to click on.
		Windows NT/W2K: Right click on the connection icon again, and
click 
			"close".


27A.  PROTECT MYSELF WHEN I'M ON-LINE
This isn't really so hard as long as you have some basic information.
First, understand that your browser may be both your best friend
and your worst enemy.  Browsers that include e-mail information
/ access will probably give your e-mail address away to any web
site that asks.  So, if you accidentally land at "www.hot-babes-with-no-clothing.com"
and that site asks your browser "who are you?" the browser will
probably send your e-mail address -- and you'll begin getting
all kinds of "interesting" e-mail.  
Second, browsers will most always support a language called "java"
which can run some programs.  Microsoft Internet Explorer also
supports a language called Active-X, which, unlike java, has no
limitations on what it can do with your system.  (Is this a bad
thing?  Within a corporation: no; on the internet: yes.)
Third, because Windows is tightly integrated with Internet Explorer,
Outlook / Outlook Express, the address book and Office (Word /
Excel), use of these products make you vulnerable to "macro" type
e-mail viruses, such as "Melissa", that are written in Word Basic.
 In other words: instead of someone sending you a virus-infected
program as an attachment that must be run to infect your system,
you can become infected by simply opening (with Word) a document
that has a macro virus within it -- and you will become infected,
and the virus will use Outlook and Word to duplicate itself over
the internet.  Furthermore, the Bubbleboy virus can run if the
document is opened by Outlook -- you don't have to open it.

Recommendations:
1) Use two separate programs for browsing and e-mail.
2) Don't use Internet Explorer unless you can disable Active-X
functionality or unless you absolutely must.
3) Don't use Outlook unless you must.
4) Never open a Word or Excel document retrieved via e-mail or
internet and allow macros to run.  (The Melissa and Bubbleboy
viruses use your address book and send your friends a "document"
from you...)  Open the document, examine the macros, then run
them.

These recommendations mean:
1) Use Netscape Navigator / Communicator or another browser other
than Internet Explorer.  This will eliminate the possibility of
Active-X viruses.
2) If that browser supports e-mail, enter your name as a fictitious
name and give an impossible e-mail address.  To allow ftp access,
we normally set the e-mail within the browser as:
User name:   default
e-mail:	anonymous@junk. com		[notice the space after the period]
This will allow normal browsing and ftp download of files, but
will prevent the e-mail portion of the browser from working or
giving out your valid e-mail address.
3) Use an e-mail program that is for e-mail only, such as Eudora
(www.eudora.com), or Pegasus Mail.  Send and retrieve all of your
e-mail through this program.  If possible, set the program so
that it doesn't preview messages when they come in -- just show
the headers in the in box.  If possible, don't allow HTML messages
to be accepted or displayed -- they can contain java code that
can retrieve information from your system.
4) Do not use the Word / Outlook integrated address book.
5) Removing Internet Explorer from your system might be the ideal
solution, but doing so has shown a 50% "trashing" rate on the
systems (half of the system we tried to uninstall MSIE from required
a complete reinstall of Windows), so we recommend that you leave
MSIE on the system -- just remove the icons that start it.

28. SEND / RECEIVE / USE E-MAIL
e-mail is linked to internet usage -- see above.  In order to

send and receive e-mail, you must know the address of the person
to whom you want to send mail.  e-mail addresses are in the form
of:  {login name}@{domain}.  Examples of e-mail addresses:
president@whitehouse.gov
support@juno.com

Notice that each of the above has a user name and a properly formatted
domain.  You can write and read e-mail "off line" which saves
your internet access time as well as frees your phone line. 

When you receive someone's e-mail address, it is a good idea to
enter it into your address book.  Many address books are arranged
as:
Nickname		e-mail address

so that you can enter a nickname (e.g., "Bill Clinton") and have
the e-mail program substitute the proper address (e.g., "president@whitehouse.gov").
 Nicknames often cannot include commas (,) so periods (.) can
be substituted (e.g., "Clinton. Bill").

Creating an e-mail:
	Open your address book, select the recipient, and click on "To:"
 This will create a new e-mail with the recipient's name entered,
your name and address should also be entered.  You may be positioned
on the "Re:" or "Subject:" line.  Enter a brief description of
the purpose for the e-mail.  Some users routinely delete e-mail
without reading if there is nothing in the subject area.  You
should probably avoid terse / cute entries, such as "Good Times"
 or "Join the Crew"  as these have been related to e-mail virus
hoaxes.  If the e-mail topic is a family reunion, then why not
type "Jones Family Reunion, July 1999" as the subject?

	Click on the next field to enter or use the TAB key to move to
the next field in the header.  "cc:" allows you to send a copy
of the message to another.  You can also enter another nickname
or address in the "To:" field by separating the names with commas
(e.g., Bill Clinton, Hillary).  "cc:" allows those in the "To:"
field and those in the "cc:" field to see who received the message.
 "Bcc:" is a "blind carbon copy" and causes the e-mail program
to send a copy of the message to those listed in the bcc field,
but they only see who the message was sent to, and not all those
listed in cc and bcc.  E.g., send a message to your US Representative
(To:) as well as all other Representatives (Bcc) and any newspapers
you want (Bcc).  The other Representatives and newspapers will
know that your Representative received an e-mail from you, but
they won't know about each other.  "Attachment", is present, allows
you to attach a file to the e-mail.  You normally can't send pictures
or formatted documents within the body of an e-mail message, but
you can attach the picture / document to an e-mail message and
the recipient will be able to view / receive / use it.  The simplest
way to attach a file to an e-mail is to click on a menu item to
add attachment, then point and select the file to be attached.

NOTE:  because files normally contain redundant information, use
a compression  program (like pkzip, winzip, arj, lharc) to compress
your file before attaching it to an e-mail.  This will save time
and space as large files can be reduced to as little as 1% of
their original size when compressed.  It is also a good idea to
ask before sending an attachment as viruses can be embedded in
attachments, but not in e-mail.  Some companies have a policy
of deleting any unsolicited attachments without opening them,
so ask first.  Also, it is a good idea to make sure that the recipient
has the tools necessary to uncompress / unzip the attachment and
use the attachment.  It is not good "form" to send a Microsoft
Word document compressed with arj to someone if the recipient
doesn't have arj or Microsoft Word.  Ask first.


	The body of the e-mail is the largest area, and you use it as
if it were a word processor.  Some e-mail programs have spell
checking features, some don't.  Write your letter / note here.
 In written communication, some things are lost, such as sarcasm,
inflection and so on.  "Emoticons" were "developed" to help convey
information when the written word wasn't enough.  These are the
symbols that often appear in e-mail   :-)  that are best when
viewed from a 90-degree angle.  Some indicate that what was written
was supposed to be funny      :-)
or a wink-wink, nudge-nudge      ;-)
or an "oh my!"      :-0
or an "I'm very angry"     >:-(

	When your message is finished, click on "Send."  If you're connected
to the internet, the message should be sent.  If not, you'll get
an error message to ignore, click on OK and go on.  Message not
sent are stored as "queued" in the "out box."  When you next connect
and check mail, usually the out box message are automatically
sent.
	To check your mail, click on the icon or menu item to check your
mail.  Remember, you must be connected before you can get your
mail.

What is an efficient sequence for e-mail?
Compose your note -- off line.
Send it -- off line
Repeat for each e-mail to send.
Leave the e-mail program open and connect to the internet.
When connected, check your mail / send the queued messages.
When all mail has been sent / received, leave the e-mail program
open and disconnect from the internet.
Read your new mail, reply to messages off line
When finished, reconnect to the internet and re-check / send mail.
Disconnect and close your e-mail program.

28A. GET A VIRUS FROM E-MAIL
"Well, if you really want to...."
Computer viruses affect specific configurations of computers,
for example, an anti-Macintosh virus generally won't affect a
PC, and a PC / Windows virus won't affect a Unix system.
For your system to be infected with a virus, you must have the
following conditions:
1) the virus will run / affect your system
2) you must have received the virus from somewhere
3) your system must have the necessary components so that the
virus can function
4) you must have executed a program that started the virus so
that it could infect your system
5) you fail to have / run a virus checker, or have let the virus
checker's signature file become out-of-date, or fail to respond
to warnings about possible dangers.

How would these conditions be illustrated?
Example 1:  Monkey Boot Virus (changes the fixed drive configuration
so that the system will only be able to access information on
the fixed disk if the system boots from the fixed disk.)
1) the "monkey boot virus" only affects PCs -- will not affect
a Mac or a Unix system.
If you have a Mac or are running Unix / Linux -- you're safe.
2) you receive an infected program / diskette from "a friend"
3) in order to become infected, you must be running DOS or Windows
and have the ability to execute the virus code
4) you leave the floppy disk in the drive when booting, causing
the system to boot from the infected floppy -- running the virus;
or you run the game program that has been infected and the virus

runs
5) you fail to have a virus checker running when you first inserted
the infected floppy diskette, which would have detected the virus,
or the virus checker is unaware of the existance of the specific
virus.

Example 2:  Melissa e-mail Virus
1) the Melissa virus affects systems that have 
-- Microsoft Word 97 or later that have the ability to run Word
Basic Macros
-- Outlook / Outlook Express running as an e-mail program
-- Internet Explorer running as a browser
-- the integrated Address Book containing e-mail addresses
If you use Netscape as your browser and Eudora for e-mail, you're
safe.
If you don't use the Integrated Address Book to keep your e-mail
addresses, you're safe.
If you don't use Word or have it on your system, you're safe
2) you receive an e-mail from a friend with the subject line:
 "The file you've been looking for"  or "Here is the file I was
going to send you" with a Word document  attached.
3) Unfortunately, you're running Outlook as the e-mail program,
have placed your e-mail addresses in the Address Book and have
Word on your system.  If you're running Eudora, you'll still see
the subject line.
4) you double-click on the attachment to open it.  By the time
you blink, Melissa has altered your registry, copied the document
and sent it to the first 50 names in your Address Book.  By the
time you realize that the document is both infected and a list
of pornography sites, it is too late.  If you're running Eudora,
Melissa can't find the address book and hasn't been able to replicate
itself.  The registry has been altered.
5) you failed to heed the warning that Word displayed:  This document
may contain macros that can hurt your system.  Do you want to
turn macro support off?  Had you heeded the warning, you could
have examined the document, checked for macros and seen the content
of the document -- and you might have deleted it (never detecting
the infection lurking within).  Or, your virus checker with the
current virus signature would have alerted you to the presence
of the infected virus.

NOTE:  If you receive a virus warning with the following virus
names:
Good Times
Join the Crew
It takes guts to say Jesus

or if you get information about the following situations, things:
Bill Gates' e-mail tracking program and $5000
Microsoft / Disneyland e-mail tracking program
Bill 602P ending free e-mail
Mrs. Fields' Cookie Recipe
Nieman Marcus Cookie Recipe
Proctor & Gamble and Satan
Madeline Murray O'Hare
THESE ARE ALL HOAXES. 
 
NONE OF THEM IS TRUE.  

IF YOU SPREAD THEM, AT BEST YOU ARE CLOGGING THE INTERNET WITH
USELESS, DAMAGING INFORMATION, WASTING YOUR TIME AND THE TIME
OF OTHER PEOPLE.  AT WORST, YOU COULD END UP IN JAIL FOR SPREADING
LIBEL AND SLANDERING PEOPLE OR COMPANIES.
To verify the truth of warnings, offers that you receive, contact
one of the following:


www.sans.org
www.cern.org
www.symantec.com/avcenter
www.mcafee.com

or do a search on "urban myths and legends"
 

29. SPEED UP MY COMPUTER?
"Everything is memory."    The more RAM you have, the faster your
Windows based system will go.  If you're only under DOS, some
of these will work.

-To speed up your fixed disk, install a disk cache program such
as SmartDrv.   Windows automatically installs this.
-Don't use disk compression utilities like DoubleSpace or Drive
Space -- they take about twice as long to operate and put your
data at risk.  The only increase the available space on the drive
by 50%.  If you must compress, use pkzip / arj / winzip and store
compressed files as compressed rather than compressing the drive.
 Remove doublespace / drvspace to increase space on the drive.
-If you have a 386 or better and don't have a swap file, use a
temporary swap file for Windows 3.x.  If you upgraded from 3.1
to 9x/NT/W2K, erase the Windows 3.x swap file and let Windows
9x/NT/W2K control the size of the file.
-If you have a swap file under Windows 3.1, make sure it is permanent
swap file.
-Windows 3.x: If you have 4Mb of RAM, increase your RAM to 8Mb.
 You can then reduce the size of your swap file.  If you have
8Mb of RAM, increase your RAM to 12Mb or 16Mb.  Windows 3.x doesn't
work that much better with more than 16Mb RAM.
-Windows 9x/NT/W2K: If you have 16Mb RAM, increase it to 32Mb.
 If you have 32Mb RAM, increase it to 64Mb; if 64Mb, increase
to 128Mb.
-If you have a CPU CACHE (hardware), it should be turned on (both
internal and external if present).  Pentium class systems can
run as fast as 386s if the hardware cache is disabled.
-Because Windows is graphically based, use faster video cards
(with more RAM).  Some cards with 4Mb RAM are not as fast as cards
with 2Mb RAM because the 2Mb card has a graphics accelerator built
in.  Use AGP instead of PCI, PCI instead of ISA video cards.
-If you are writing programs and data to your fixed disk, defragment
your fixed disk about once a month. Fragmentation can cost you
up to 30% of your speed.  
(Win3.x):  run defrag under DOS only after SmartDrv has been disabled.
 
(Win9x): Defrag only runs under Windows and not DOS and takes
a considerable amount of time.  Turn off your screen saver and
close all other programs when running defrag.  Any changes to
the drive contents will cause defrag to start over.  Even if defrag
says that the drive doesn't need to be defragged, do it anyway.
 
(WinNT/W2K):  Windows NT does not come with a defrag program (W2K
does), you must download it (Diskeeper Lite is available from
www.diskeeper.com).  
(Win9x/NT/W2K):  Don't use the DOS 6 defrag program on your system
under any circumstances.  It will work but will also break all
links between files and long file names -- forcing a complete
reinstall of Windows.

-Some programs just run slow because they are big and may not
be written for speed. (Not much you can do here...)
-Finally, you may be faced with the option of getting a faster
computer.  
As of August, 1994, Intel was recommending a 486DX2-66 with 4Mb
RAM as the minimum speed for running Windows.  

As of August, 1996, the Pentium 75 with 8Mb RAM was the minimum
level  
In 1999, the PC99 standard / Windows 2000 ready includes: 300Mhz
processor, 64Mb RAM, 3Gb fixed disk.  
In 2000, we're seeing PIII - 600s, 128Mb RAM, 12Gb fixed disks.
 You may need to contact either the computer manufacturer or dealer
for help.

These next sections on diagnosis are "light" and may give you
a hint as what the problem might be.  Ultimately, you may need
to call your local computer technician or CCSI for assistance.

30. ANALYZE MODEM PROBLEMS
"My modem doesn't connect / won't dial out / just doesn't work."
 Step-by-step checking the modem involves the following:
All Modems:
Is there power to the modem?
Is the phone line connected to the wall jack?
Is the phone line connected to the "LINE" or "TELCO" jack on the
modem (instead of the "HANDSET" or "PHONE" jack?
If your modem has only one jack, does it require an adapter (early
Packard Bell systems were this way:  no adapter = no modem access)

External Modems:
Turn the modem off then on.  What lights come on?  You should
see MR (modem ready), TR (terminal ready), CS and RS if your computer
is on.
Is the cable connecting the computer to the modem a "Modem Cable"
rather than a "Null-Modem Cable"?

All Modems
>> To test modems at this point, you need a character-based communications
program, such as Qmodem or Procomm (DOS); Terminal or Bitcomm
(Win 3.x); Supervoice, Bitcomm or Hyperterm (Win 9x/NT/2000).

Test 1a.  External Modems, Non-Winmodems, DOS / Win3x:  Boot your
system to DOS.  Load a DOS terminal program and set it to find
your modem.  It should be located on one of these settings:
Com 1, 3F8, IRQ4
Com2, 2F8, IRQ3
Com3, 3E8, IRQ4
Com4, 2E8, IRQ3
(Your serial mouse should be on Com 1; PS/2 mouse does not use
a COM port.)
Can the software find the modem?  Try setting it manually to one
of these settings.

At the terminal screen, type 
ATZ

you should see
OK
returned.  If not, try another port.  If none of the ports work,
your modem may be bad.
Get info about your modem by typing
ATI[0-9]
(type ATI, ATI0, ATI1 and press ENTER after each one.)  This will
show information stored within the modem that will help you determine
its type and speed.

Test 1b.  Win9x/NT/W2K:  Boot your system, go to the control panel,
click on modems.  Is your modem listed?  If not, install it.

Is it installed referring to the correct type of modem?  If you
have a Zoltrex V.90 modem and the system installed it as a USRobotics
X.34 modem, it probably won't work too well.  Sometimes installing

your modem as a Standard 28800 modem will allow it to work.  External
modems will be on Com1 or Com2 (unless you have changed the com
port assignments in the CMOS -- but that is another story...)

If the modem is installed, click on Diagnostics, then click on
the modem port and then on More info.  Can the system talk to
the modem?  If not, you have a problem.
Check the System Icon, Device Manager, Modems.  Is your modem
listed?  Is there a conflict with another port?  You may need
to remove and reinstall the modem drivers or the modem itself.

Is your modem a Plug-n-Play modem or a Winmodem?  Some modems
require that you create a "phantom" COM port for the modem before
it can be installed properly, while others will create their own
phantom port.  What port is your modem using?

Winmodems are notorious for creating a special COM3 that uses
IRQ5 (conflicting with the sound card) and sitting at an address
of 01xx -- and this results in the modem being unusable by anything
other than Hyperterm and perhaps the Dial-up Networking.

If the modem is installed, you can get results from "More Info",
then try to contact the modem via Hyperterm.  Instead of using
the Modem, select "Direct to COMx" as the device to use where
"x" is the com port.
At the terminal screen, type 
ATZ

you should see
OK
returned.  If not, try another port.  If none of the ports work,
your modem may be bad.
Get info about your modem by typing
ATI[0-9]
(type ATI, ATI0, ATI1 and press ENTER after each one.)  This will
show information stored within the modem that will help you determine
its type and speed.  This will the the same info that you saw
under "More Info"

Test 2.  So far, the modem is working at a low level.  You can
see it, it talks to you.  Now, try to dial from your character
based terminal program.  Select a known phone number  (xxx-xxxx)
and type

ATDTxxxxxxx

and press ENTER.  You should hear the modem pick up the phone,
get a dial tone and dial the number.  If you're dialing yourself,
the line will by busy.  If dialing a friend, be ready to pick-up
the handset and explain what you're doing.  Some modems will fail
at this point -- won't dial out, won't detect a dial tone -- and
the modem should be replaced.

Test 3.  Ok, it will dial, but will it connect?  Try dialing a
known computer, computer bulletin board (CBBS) or internet provider.
 Even if you can't log-in, you should be able to establish a connection.
 Type 

ATDTxxxxxxx

(xxxxxxx is the computer's number) and press ENTER.  It should
connect.  If it doesn't, check your settings.
Disconnect and exit from Hyperterm.

Test 4.  Win 3.x:  Make sure that your WinSock software is installed
properly.  Win 9x/NT/W2K: Make sure that you have installed ALL

of the Windows patches needed for dial-up networking, and for
Windows.  Failure to do so will certainly result in errors.

Set up your Dial-up Networking according to your ISP's requirements
and dial in.  With the proper login name, password (and possibly
script), you should get in.  If you get an error indicating that
the other system isn't responding to a networking request, re-check
your settings.  The ISP is probably supporting hundreds of users
who successfully log-in on a daily basis and your failure to log
in is probably not their problem.

Test 5: Send / receive faxes.  Exit from any other communications
programs (Hyperterm / dial-up networking), make sure that your
fax software is installed, open Wordpad and type a short note.
 Select the fax instead of your printer when you click on "print."
 You should see the fax program asking for a name and phone number.
 Enter the information needed and click "send."    If everything
else works, and your fax software is installed correctly (on the
right port) then the modem is probably bad.

31. ANALYZE PRINTER PROBLEMS
"My printer just stopped working."
Do you have power to the printer?  Are the lights on?
Is the cable connected to the computer?
Does the printer do a self-test properly?  If not, stop here.
 The printer is defective.
Does the printer re-initialize when the computer loads the operating
system?  If not, check cables.
Swap printer cable.  Can you print now?  Are you using the proper
printer cable (IEEE-1284 vs bidirectional vs standard cable)?
Swap printers.  Can you print now?  If you put a known-good printer
on a machine with a known-good cable and it doesn't print from
DOS, then the printer port in the computer may be defective.
Do you have the right / current printer driver installed for this
printer?  If you're emulating another printer, is this the correct
emulation?
If this is a Win Printer, it will only work under Win 9x -- not
3.x, DOS, NT or W2K.
If this is an HP printer and you've upgraded from another HP,
did you completely uninstall the previous HP driver from your
system (removing all files and directories, including registry
entries)?  If not, your printer will probably work for a while
then fail.

32. ANALYZE MOUSE PROBLEMS
(Drivers are usually not a problem under Win 9x/NT/W2K).  Have
you cleaned the mouse ball and mouse pad recently?  Can you remove
the ball and move the rollers with your finger?  Is there dirt
/ hair on the rollers that would impede movement of the ball?
 If you move the rollers manually and the mouse pointer doesn't
move, replace your mouse.  Do not add or remove a mouse while
the system is turned on -- only change the mouse when the system
is off.

If you lose your mouse while a program is running, this isn't
a mouse problem but a Windows or program problem.  You may need
to exit from Windows and restart the system.

33. ANALYZE KEYBOARD PROBLEMS
When the system first starts, do you get a keyboard error?  If
so, turn off the system, unplug the keyboard and plug it back
in.  Turn on the system.  If you get the "keyboard not found"
error again, turn the system off and replace the keyboard.

If Windows starts and your keyboard doesn't work, first try clicking
the desktop with your mouse.  Some programs load and take control

from the keyboard so that the keyboard doesn't work (again, some
Packard Bell systems did this).  If after clicking the desktop
or opening a program, the system can't find your keyboard, you
may need to uninstall and reinstall the keyboard driver.

If your keyboard "locks up" while Windows is running; don't worry
-- this is normal "Windows crashing" behavior and you'll probably
need to reset the system.

34. ANALYZE DRIVE PROBLEMS
"Can't read from floppy / Drive C error"
Two situations commonly come to mind:
1) A floppy that was formatted and written to yesterday, is today
not able to be read by another machine and, possibly, by the machine
that originally wrote to the floppy.  It is possible that the
floppy became defective, or it is possible that one of the drives
is out of alignment or its heads are dirty.  A diskette drive
cleaning kit (wet type, not dry) would be used to clean the floppy
drive heads, then try to read the diskette again.  If you can
duplicate the process using another floppy diskette, do so --
to verify the source of the problem:  drives, media, operator
(Yes, it is possible that while you were talking on the phone
and formatting diskettes, that the diskette was never formatted).

If you still can't read the floppy, try running scandisk or chkdsk
on the floppy to see if any problems can be fixed.  Sometimes
a surface scan will reveal physical errors on the drive.

It is also possible that Windows tried to read the floppy and
decided that it was defective -- and marked track 0 as bad.  Good-bye
data.

You might try reformatting the diskette to see if it is really
defective.  You might even try using a strong magnet to erase
the drive before reformatting.  [We have found, over the years,
that as many as 70% of diskettes initially marked as "defective"
by Windows have been recovered when magnetically erased and reformatted.]

NOTE:  Perhaps the quickest way to render a floppy diskette unreadable
is to place it on top of your monitor, against the screen or on
the side of the monitor.  Floppy diskettes do not do well on car
dashboards, in direct sunlight, near strong magnetic fields or
through temperature extremes.

Drive C problems:  Can't read / Sector not found; Can't write
to the disk
How long has it been since the software was initially installed
on the system?  Some drives will require reformatting / reinstallation
every 2 - 3 years and some can go for 5 - 8 years before requiring
a reformat.
How long has it been since the last backup?  If you are having
problems, make another backup immediately -- using *new* media.
 Don't overwrite a known good backup with one that may be faulty.
Are you using Doublespace or Drivespace?  If so, these are sure
to cause problems -- this is not "if", but "when."  Make a new
backup, then remove these programs.

Run Scandisk with a surface scan to identify places that have
"gone bad."
Part of the problem here may be "head drift" and the solution
is to reformat the fixed disk and reinstall the software.  Reformatting
the fixed disk "properly" will require two formats and running
fdisk -- [Plug} see your local computer professional or contact
CCSI.  It may be that the fixed disk has gone bad -- but it may
just be that the data has become weak and needs to be "refreshed."


If after running scandisk, you see that you have bad sectors on
the drive, you may need to reformat or replace the drive.  Most
IDE drives reserve space for "remapping" bad sectors.  When this
reserved space is full, then you'll begin seeing the bad sector
information.

CD-Rom Problems:
Is the media scratched or dirty?  CDs are not coasters for drinks
and will become scratched through improper handling.  Do not clean
the CD by wiping it on your (dirty, sweaty, synthetic blend fabric)
shirt.  There are cleaners available for cleaning your CD media
that are gentle to the surface.  Some can even "fix" minor scratches
in the media.
Is the CD Drive lens dirty?  There are lens cleaners available
in most mass merchandise stores for audio CD drive cleaning --
these work fine for data CD drives as well.
Unless you've been inside the system or changed system settings
(or let Windows change system settings), nearly all remaining
problems at this point are traceable to a defective drive.

35. ANALYZE SYSTEM PROBLEMS
"My system runs for 5 minutes then stops"
1) Open the case, blow the 2 pounds of dust out and check the
CPU fan.  It probably isn't turning.  Check the Power Supply fan
-- it may not be turning, either.  Your system requires a fan
on the CPU and a fan in the Power Supply -- even if the manufacturer
cut corners and skipped one or both fans.  If your system has
a third (case) fan, check to see that it is running.  If any of
the fans is not running, it needs to be replaced.
2) If all fans are running properly, check the positioning of
the cables within the case.  It could be that the RAM is overheating
because the cables are in the way.
3) We've seen cases where the fixed disk has been in use for 5+
years and is so out of alignment that the system runs for 5 minutes,
the drive warms up and the system freezes.

"My system is always crashing"
This usually comes from someone running Windows.
Is there a pattern to the crashing: always in the same program?
 always the same sequence of keystrokes?
Some things to check:
1) Run scandisk then check the root directory.  Any files that
look like this:
FILExxxx.CHK

may be deleted.  These are "lost clusters" that scandisk has recovered
from Windows' normal operations.  The original names of these
files are somewhere on the disk, usually in the \TEMP or \WINDOWS\TEMP
folder.  In fact, any files in the \TEMP or \WINDOWS\TEMP folder
should be removed / deleted.  Lost clusters and "zero-length"
files often cause Windows to behave erratically.
2) How many files in your recycle bin?  When is the last time
you "took the trash out?"  (Do so now.)
3) Been on the internet recently?  Clean out your internet cache:
 temporary internet files (for MSIE) and ...\users\<username>\cache
(for Netscape).  If you're using programs that regularly download
advertising from the internet (e.g., Juno, Eudora 4.3), then remove
all of these ad files.
4) Run defrag.  Regardless of what the message says, defragment
your fixed disk regularly.  Fragmentation can steal as much as
30% of your system performance (according to one manufacturer
of defragmentation software), and this can result in Windows timing-out
and some programs failing to respond.
5) Check your registry for broken links and incorrect data.  [This
is a plug:]  OnTrack's Fix-it 2000 Utilities will identify problems
with the Windows registry and allow you to remove the broken links.

 We recommend this product highly.  If you fix the registry, then
you probably need to defragment it as well (Fix-it 2000 will do
this, too).

"My system just runs slowly"
(See above).  Slowly -- compared to what?  If it ran quickly at
first, then you installed some software, then it slowed down --
look at the most recent software you installed for a possible
answer.  If the system has gradually slowed down, when was the
last time you ran scandisk and defrag?  If you do a lot of writing
or have a lot of letters / files, how many are in a single folder?
 If you have more than about 150 documents / files in a single
folder without creating a sub-folder, you're asking the system
to literally "wade through" hundreds of files to get to the one
you want:  move files into sub-folder so speed up the system.

36. GET MORE HELP ON WINDOWS OR DOS (or other programs)
As trite as this may sound, the general answer is to this question
is READ THE MANUAL for whichever program you want additional help.
 (When you read messages on Internet and see "RTM" or "RTFM",
this is what it refers to:  Read The [xxx] Manual.)  After you
struggle with the manual and realize that many were written by
programmers for programmers, you can proceed.
There are many sources of help for computers and programs. Almost
all programs running under MS-DOS / Windows 3.x use the F1 key
as a HELP key.  If you're running a program and you need help,
READ THE SCREEN or press F1. (DOS Programs from WordPerfect Corporation
use F3 for help.)

Many programs have additional information on the diskette in a
file called READ.ME, README.1st, or having similar names; or you
may find files saved as ADDENDUM.DOC, MANUAL.DOC, MANUAL.TXT.
 Look at the names of the files on the diskette and see if you
can find some that look like they might contains additional information.
 

Some programs include tutorials that you can run and experiment
with.  Part of the fun of computers is PLAYING with programs to
see what they'll do.  Tutorials are nothing more than organized
ways to play.  

Windows 9x/NT/W2K includes a guided tour of the operating system.
 Click on Start, Help then take the introduction or tour.

If the program you're running is very popular, there are usually
books written to help you get going.  It seems that every day
a new book is published on (e.g., in 1994:) Lotus 1-2-3, dBASE
or c; or (e.g., in 1999) Word, java, Access.  If your program
is not popular or well accepted [yet], you'll probably not find
any books on the program and you may need to contact the manufacturer
or publisher for additional help.   IDG books has the popular
"dummies" books:  Windows for Dummies, Access for Dummies, etc.
 and there is another series called "The Idiot's guide to ...".

You may find that there are magazines written to help you run
a program, or sections in certain computer magazines address the
problems within your software.  A $19.95 subscriptions is often
a small investment to create an "encyclopedia" of helpful information,
often with CD-ROMs sent monthly.

Internet support is available in a number of forms: 
Manufacturer usually maintain web sites containing both technical
articles and drivers / patches for their products. To get to the
company site, jump onto the Internet, enter the name of the company
as (usually):


http://www.companyname.com

(e.g., www.microsoft.com,  www.sco.com,  www.hp.com, www.pc.ibm.com)
and you'll end up at a website that is confusing.  Go directly
to "Support" or "Customer Service", then look for things like
"Search this site", "Search the knowledge base", or "Technical
Articles".  Ask your question(s) using simple English -- remember,
you're talking to a computer.  Sometimes, you'll want to use key
words, like "crash," "freeze," "lockup," "stall," or "halt" when
describing a system crash.  Don't be surprised if your query results
in 0 (zero) information -- programmers wrote the help info, too.
 Change the word and try again.  Sometimes, you'll want to trick
the system by entering the name of the program as the search string,
and setting the number of articles to retrieve to 500 -- but you
may get too much info.

You may be able to send an e-mail query to the company, but this
may result in either no answer, a refusal ("Sorry, you don't have
a service contract with us, so we won't help you.") or may result
in giving a direction for additional searching.

Newsgroups or usergroups are a second source of information. 
Someone else may have already had the problem you are now having
and they've asked for help and received it.  Newsgroups are located
by:

news://newsgroupname

(e.g., news://comp.unix.sco.misc)
and are collections of questions and answers.  Sometimes the information
is helpful, sometimes it isn't.  You get to wade through it.

Sometimes you'll find user groups that can help, such as www.nui.com
(Netware Users International), that will provide additional information
for you.


Contacting the company directly often (usually) includes (requires)
use of your Visa or Master Card.  Once upon a time, most software
manufacturers provided free support.  It is rare today if even
the first 30 days is free.  Most of the time the standard of support
phrase  is "Please have your VISA or MasterCard ready..."  Manufacturers
only provide technical support for those who will pay [often dearly]
for it.  Typical costs are often as much as 20% of the original
software cost/year, or $75.00 for 12 minutes.  One hardware manufacturer
alienated its customer a year or so ago by charging $35 / incident
-- for initial setup of its systems.  Costs and terms vary with
each manufacturer, so check for the kind of support you'll receive
BEFORE investing in software.  Often this is the LAST resort you'll
want to try.

If these fail, you may still have two other sources of help:

-- the dealer / vendor from whom you purchased the software or
hardware.  Those folks should be able to help you and it shouldn't
cost anything initially.  (Part of the Dealer's commission for
selling the product is to provide the first level of support.)
 If you purchased the software or system from CCSI, please call
us and we'll try to help.  We're familiar with many software programs
and computers and we can often find a solution to a problem because
it is similar to others we've conquered.  

If you purchased your hareware or software via the internet, from
a mail-order house or discounter (e.g, WalMart, Staples), don't
expect any help.  They usually don't have the skill or resources
to handle specific issues.


Note: If you contact a dealer for help and you didn't purchase
either software or system from him / her,  don't be surprised
when you're charged for the technical support. Dealers have an
obligation to support systems they sell -- but no obligation to
support any other dealer's systems.  Also, don't be surprised
if you find that a dealer can't help you -- most dealers don't
and can't provide support even for systems that they sell. (Sorry
about that.)  Mass merchandisers (e.g., Staples, Wal-Mart) generally
don't / can't provide support and the margins on the hardware
they sell is too small to allow them to hire competent technical
support staff.  Your savings on the cost of a system may be more
than lost in obtaining the support you need.

-- others who have suffered through or conquered the program.
 You can often find others who have the same program as you and
have mastered the obstacles you're facing.  When these users form
an organization, it is called a "user's group"  and often provides
help  for members that is superior to that of the manufacturer.
 See Newsgroups above.

Hardware support is usually spelled out in the warranty and most
companies are offering 1 - 2 year warranties on parts only.  Labor
may be excluded from a manufacturers' if a non-authorized local
dealer works on your system during the warranty period.  Again,
check the warranty and the local dealer before investing.

There are two special classes of programs that may cause you tremendous
grief or bring great joy:  Public Domain ("Freeware") and "Shareware."

If the software you're having trouble with is in the PUBLIC DOMAIN,
don't expect much help.  PUBLIC DOMAIN means that the program
is not protected by copyright or patent and has been "donated"
(or abandoned) for public ownership and use:  everyone [or no
one] owns it and is responsible for it.  Some public domain software
is very good; some isn't worth the time needed to copy it.  Often
you can find someone who has some experience with the program
and can help you.

If the software you're having trouble with is SHAREWARE your support
options are simple.  SHAREWARE means that you may use a copyrighted
program [someone owns it] without having to pay for it first:
"try before you buy."  If you call the author and have not registered
your copy, you'll probably be told to do so BEFORE you'll get
help.  If the software is, in your opinion, worth the registration
cost then send in your money and you'll get 1)an answer, 2)perhaps
a newer manual, 3)perhaps a newer copy of the program or a newer
copy when it becomes available, 4)additional technical support
when you need it.  If, on the other hand, the author has moved
or is out of business, you should consider that program as having
the same support as if it were public domain.

37. Understand the differences between versions of Windows

What's new in Win '95 from 3.x
Windows 95 has the following features / enhancements compared
to 3.x:
A different interface making operations quicker, 'more responsive.'
 You no longer need to hold the mouse button down to 'drag' through
menus.  The Start button begins all operations, if desired.  Switch
between programs via the taskbar.  Groups can be embedded within
groups; icons can be copied to the desktop.
Windows Explorer replaces the File Manager and places all drives
and files on a single 'axis.'
Filenames are no longer limited to the '8.3' DOS pattern.  Longer
file names are supported.  Renaming files is as simple as 'clicking'

on the file name.
Multimedia support and improved game support is built into Windows
95.
Better MS-DOS support allowing better protection between programs
is built into Windows 95.
Plug and Play hardware compatibility means that you can add upgrade
cards and Windows will 'talk' to the card and reconfigure itself.
Task Switching has been replaced by 32-bit preemptive multitasking,
meaning that programs / tasks run independently of each other.
Microsoft Exchange allows you to view and work with all types
of electronic communications, including e-mail and faxes.
Terms: Folder is like a subdirectory rather than a group.
Internet access via The Microsoft Network is included with Windows
95 -- although you still need to subscribe to The Microsoft Network
just as you would any other Internet provider.
Deleting files can now affects the files, not just the icons.
 In many cases, you still need to remove the program icon as well
as the folder.

What's new in 98
Bugs, bugs and more bugs.  Windows 98 press releases included
mention that it repaired between 3000 and 5000 bugs in Windows
95B, the latest OEM release of 95, which, itself, included bug
fixes for the previous 4 versions of 95 (estimates are as high
as 12,000 as the number of bugs in the initial release of Windows
95).
Internet Explorer is tightly integrated into Windows 98, which
resulted in some litigation from various States and the US Justice
Department.  (www.98lite.net contains information on removing
Internet Explorer from 98:  how to, why to, consequences of, including
increased stability and more speed.)
Active Desktop (part of Internet Explorer) which allows modification
of the start menu, active internet integration with your system.
Speed -- Windows 98 appears to be more responsive to user input,
although benchmark tests indicate that is it not significantly
different in processing speed than Windows 95.  98 requires a
486-66 with 16Mb RAM to install while 95 will install on a 386
with 8Mb RAM.
Size - Windows 95 will install in 40 - 60Mb as an upgrade to 3.x.
 Windows 98 may require over 250Mb just to install.  Many optional
features of 95 are now standard, such as Dial Up Networking and
Internet Explorer.
Updates - Windows 98 updates "require" the use of Internet Explorer.
 Downloading them via Netscape Navigator (another browser) is
possible, but not obvious.
User profiles -- multiple users can share a single machine and
have it customized for each user's styles and preferences.
Stable -- 98 is more stable than 95.  Period.


What about Windows NT?
Windows NT is Microsoft's flagship product, currently on Version
4.  What is different than 3.x or 9x?
Common Interface -- NT looks and feels like 95 or 98, so transition
from 9x to NT is simple.  Like many things, the real strength
is below the surface of NT.
No DOS:  NT does not use, contain or rely upon DOS, but allows
DOS sessions to run in their own virtual environment, protected
from each other.  This means that some DOS programs (those that
attempt to directly control hardware) will not run under NT.
Size - NT will install in under 200Mb of space.  NT systems, however,
are currently running with over 300Mb RAM and are very quick.
Plug and Play is not implemented, so some low-cost hardware will
not work with NT.  WinModems are a good example of such devices
that require 95/98 and don't work under NT.  Lexmark printers
(1000, 1100) are designed specifically for 95/98 and will not

work under NT.  Games requiring DirectX 6 will not operate because
this cannot be installed under NT.
Stable -- NT is more stable than 98.  Period.  NT does not allow
any software to directly control the hardware, a major source
of instability in systems.  (e.g., programs to configure hardware
that operate under DOS will not operate under NT; therefore, any
software configurable cards used within NT systems must be configured
when the system boots under DOS.  After configuration, then NT
can find the card and use it.) Even accounting for the Blue Screen
of Death (BSOD), NT is more stable than 3.x/9x because NT isolates
all running programs and allows operator control when one fails.
 E.g., Telephony systems (answering systems) require a complete
system shutdown under 3.x; usually require a complete system shutdown
under 9x, but can be stopped, modems reset, and restarted under
NT.
Patches -- NT requires service packs 1-6a to be installed, which
also require Internet Explorer 4.01 / SP1 to be installed.  9x
patches and upgrades have not been as organized.
Security -- where previous versions of Windows had token or no
security, NT has significantly higher levels of security.
User profiles -- multiple users can share a single machine and
have it customized for each user's styles and preferences.  Each
has a separate, secure login.
Speed -- across nearly all tests, NT is 30% faster than 98.

What's new in Windows 2000 (W2K)
This is an upgrade from Windows NT and is the only product we
know about for whom the manufacturer posted two bug fixes the
day before its official release.  Smart Reseller magazine claimed
that W2K is plagued with 63,000 known defects / bugs -- but it
is more reliable than any of its predecessors.

Common Interface -- W2K looks and feels like 95 or 98, so transition
from NT to W2K is simple.  Like many things, the real strength
is below the surface of W2K.  Upgrading from 9x to W2K is similar
to the upgrade from 9x to NT:  most programs would need to be
reinstalled because the registry structure is different between
these two "strains" of Windows.
No DOS:  W2K does not use, contain or rely upon DOS, but allows
DOS sessions to run in their own virtual environment, protected
from each other.  This means that some DOS programs (those that
attempt to directly control hardware) will not run under W2K.
Size - W2K will install in under 1Gb of space.  W2K systems, however,
are currently running with over 300Mb RAM and are very quick.
 While 64Mb RAM is the minimum, is it not recommended:  go for
128Mb RAM as the minimum.
Plug and Play is now implemented, but some low-cost hardware will
not work with W2K.  WinModems are a good example of such devices
that require 95/98 and don't work under W2K.  Lexmark printers
(1000, 1100) are designed specifically for 95/98 and will not
work under W2K.  DirectX 6 has been included in W2K, but may not
operate with all games.
Stable -- W2K is more stable than 95, 98 or NT.  Period.  During
the W2K launch, ZD Labs provided data that showed the following:
 95 requires a reboot every 2.1 days, NT requires a reboot every
5.2 days, W2K did not require a reboot during a run of over 90
days.  These are "averages" and indicate "up-time", i.e., Windows
95 crashed an average of every 2 days while NT crashed an average
of every 5 days.  Part of the stability of W2K lies in its redundancy
-- critical files are stored in multiple locations on the system
so that if the main copy becomes corrupted or lost, it is replaced
from another copy.  Another way that W2K is more stable than 3.x/9x
is that it isolates all running programs and allows operator control
when one fails.  E.g., Telephony systems (answering systems) require
a complete system shutdown under 3.x; usually require a complete
system shutdown under 9x, but can be stopped, modems reset, and

restarted under W2K.
Patches -- So far, W2K does not have a unified service pack, but
one is expected by summer 2000 -- about the same time as "Millenium"
(the successor to Win 98) is released.
Security -- where previous versions of Windows had token or no
security, W2K has significantly higher levels of security.
User profiles -- multiple users can share a single machine and
have it customized for each user's styles and preferences.  Each
has a separate, secure login.
Speed -- across nearly all tests, W2K is significantly faster
than NT.
Portability -- W2K is designed in part for network and internet
access.  Laptop systems have better power management and caching
of files to allow "road-warriors" to modify files while away from
the office, then update the master copies easily.


So, if they look the same and cost about the same, what are the
critical differences between Windows versions? (What should I
be running on?)

3.x -- 16 - bit operating system; limited, runs on older hardware;
not fully Y2K compliant with no fixes in sight because it relies
on DOS 5 / 6.  Will run on 386s with 4Mb RAM and 40Mb fixed disk.
 Recommendation: Upgrade hardware immediately.  New software isn't
being developed for 3.x
95 -- multimedia, plug-and-play, low-cost / entry level / gaming
systems not requiring any security.  Y2K fixes will handle software,
but non-compliant hardware may cause problems.  Will run on 486-25s
with 8Mb RAM and 100Mb fixed disk. (Which version are you running?)
 Recommendation: if on 95, install SP1 and patches if one must
stay with 95; if on 95b or 95c, install patches or upgrade to
98.  The Internet Explorer 5 upgrade will give you Active Desktop
which works like the default desktop in 9x / NT / W2K; however,
IE5 needs the latest patches to work well.
98 -- same as 95 with more stability.  Y2K fixes will handle software,
but non-compliant hardware may cause problems.  Will run on 486-66
with 16Mb RAM and 300Mb fixed disk.  (Which version are you running?)
 Recommendation:  install Y2K patches and patches; check hardware
compliance for Y2K.  Upgrade to 2nd Edition is available, but
it has a significant "shutdown" problem.  If you need a workstation
that is more stable, consider NT or W2K; otherwise, stay with
98.
NT -- stability, security, "no compromise in a Windows environment",
not for gamers but for business.  Will run on 486-66 with 16Mb
RAM and 300Mb fixed disk.  Recommendation:  install all Service
Packs (1 - 6a) and Y2K patches; check hardware compliance for
Y2K.  Know why you're running NT instead of anything else.  LANs
and networks operate better with Unix or Novell servers.  NT workstations
seem to do fine.
W2K -- stability, security, "no crashes"  Upgrading to W2K is
significantly more costly than an upgrade to Win 9x.  The benefits
are "stability"; the costs are numerous -- too soon to "bet the
farm" on W2K.

If you've used Windows 3.x and upgrade to 9x/NT/W2K: 
These elements / concepts have been replaced as follows:
Program Manager				Start -> Programs
File Manager					Start -> Programs -> Windows Explorer
MS-DOS prompt				Start -> Programs -> MS-DOS prompt
Control Panel				Start -> Settings -> Control Panel
Print Manager				Start -> Settings -> Printers
Run Command				Start -> Run
Task Switching via CTRL-ESC		use the Taskbar
Control Box and closing a window		Close Button (upper right, "X")



Logging on to Windows
When you first begin Windows, you'll need to login.  Enter your
name and password.  This will be used to login to a network, if
needed or if possible.  However, new users can use your computer
(as at home) unless you limit their access.  (If, however, the
user bypasses the login by clicking on "Cancel", s/he will still
be able to get into the system, access all files and folders using
the default profile =  "no security.")  (NT / W2K users don't
have this "cancel" option to allow access, hence, tighter security.)

Windows Elements
Windows has a number of distinct elements you need to learn:
Desktop -- the entire background
Default Icons:
	My Computer -- access things within your computer:  drives, printers,
etc.
	Network Neighborhood -- if you are networked, accesses other machines
	MS Exchange -- if you have a modem, for faxing...
	MS Network -- if you have a modem, accessing the Internet via
Microsoft...
	Recycle Bin -- removing files / objects  from the system
Start Button -- everything starts here.  "Start Me Up"
Taskbar -- at the bottom of the screen.  May be hidden (revealed
by moving mouse to
		the bottom of the screen)
	Taskbar buttons
	System Tray (lower right corner)
	Clock
Start Menu
	Programs	All programs you can start
	Documents	List of previously opened documents
	Settings	List of system components
	Find		Enables you to find a folder, shared computer or mail message
	Help		Starts Help.
	Run		Starts a program or opens a folder by typing the name
	Shut Down	Shuts down or restarts your computer -- the only safe
way to exit.
			DO NOT TURN OFF YOUR COMPUTER UNTIL YOU SEE
			THE MESSAGE SAYING IT IS SAFE TO DO SO!
			(EXCEPT FOR EMERGENCIES)

Within a Windows 9x/NT/W2K Program:
Control Icon -- upper left corner of the screen
Title Bar -- name of the application
Mimimize Button -- upper right corner, 3rd from right
Maximize Button -- upper right corner, 2nd from right
Close Button -- upper right corner
Menu Bar -- standard CUA menu with underlined options
Tool Bar(s) -- optional:  contains icons for quick access to operations
Scroll Bars -- for moving the "window" 
Blinking Cursor -- where the next character will appear in a word
processing program
Hilighted Box -- where the formula will appear in a spreadsheet
program
Mouse pointer / "I" bar -- where the mouse is pointing.  Changes
to an I-bar within a
	word-processing area, a "cross" within a spreadsheet.  Changes
to a double-
	headed arrow when sizing a window is possible.

Starting Programs
Windows 9x loads DOS,  hides it behind the login logo, then loads
the graphic user interface (GUI) automatically.  After it has
loaded, most ("all" initially) programs begin from the START button
and the taskbar.  There is no "Program Manager" from which programs

can be launched.  Windows NT/W2K loads a command processor, then
loads the graphic interface.  There is no "behind" to NT/W2K --
you can open a command prompt that will emulate DOS, but DOS isn't
under NT/W2K.

The right mouse button is used to access the properties of an
object.

Key Concept:  OBJECT
All "Things" in Win 9x/NT/W2K are OBJECTS and have properties.
 Changing the properties will change the way the object functions.
 For example, you can run a DOS program from within Win 9x/NT/W2K
and it will keep the DOS window open upon exiting, or you can
change the property of the DOS application so that it will close
the DOS window upon exiting from the program.

Additional information on Windows  95/99/NT/W2K  is contained
in the on-screen help.


* * * * * * * * * * * N O T I C E * * * * * * * * * * * 

This handout is protected by Title 17 of the U.S. Code and may
not be reproduced or duplicated for any reason without the prior
written permission of Calvert Computer Systems, Inc.  All Rights
Reserved.   Copyright c 1985-2000 Calvert Computer Systems, Inc.
 239 E. Main St. P. O. Box 95, Athena, OR  97813.